There was no one else, He had to beg Charlemagne for help. Charlemagne was also a believer in the theory of the "four empires" after which the end of the world was prophesied. She is also a contributor to Book Riot and Food Riot, a media critic with the Pueblo PULP and a regular contributor to Femnista. He had a plan and he put it in to action. One of Leo's first acts as pope was to send Charlemagne the keys to St. Peter's and the standard of the city of Rome in 795. Leo was a Roman, the son of Atyuppius and Elizabeth. In November 800, Charlemagne himself went to Rome, and on 1 December held a council there with representatives of both sides. Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne in return for? His wars and conquests, the extent of his domains, his governing ability and promotion of learning, all underscored how worthy he was of receiving the title of Emperor of the West. After the Gospel had been sung, the pope approached Charlemagne, who was kneeling before the Confession of St. Peter, and placed a crown upon his head. Over the centuries, the name Charlemagne became associated with European unification, whether through peaceful initiatives such as the European Union or war. In support of Charlemagnes coronation, some argued that the imperial position had actually been vacant, deeming a woman (Irene) unfit to be emperor. Saints, Previous post: June 12 A certain nobleman had a concubine, Next post: June 12 Saint Guido of Acqui, The American Society for the Defense of Tradition, Family and Property, The American TFP Charlemagne's biographer was keen to convey the impression that the king was surprised by the coronation. It was on Charlemagnes advice that, to ward off the savage raids of the Saracens, Leo maintained a fleet, and caused his coast line to be regularly patrolled by his ships of war. Pope Leo III was canonized as a saint in 1673 by Pope Clement X. & Charlemagne A new Pope, Leo III, was elected in 795 CE after Adrian died. Snell, Melissa. In this way, the wisdom of antiquity came to Europe. Through the crowning of Charlemagne, both men gained authority and power in their respective roles. He was dashed to the ground, and an effort was made to root out his tongue and tear out his eyes. To dress up for special occasions, he'd sport a jeweled sword. Not a century after his death, Charlemagnes empire was no more. The event was significant for several different reasons. Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king, Charlemagne, Emperor of the Romans on Christmas Day, 800 in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, making him the most powerful ruler of his time.. For instance, Napolon Bonaparte, who had his own dreams of empire, declared in 1806: "Je suis Charlemagne""I am Charlemagne.". Following the return of the Papacy to Rome, rival claimants (Antipopes) emerge. crowning Charlemagne Emperor and establishing the precedent that only the pope could confer the imperial crown. "Pope Leo III." Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor at Christmas mass in 800. It is quite possible that this haste may have been due to a desire on the part of the Romans to anticipate any interference of the Franks with their freedom of election. Dispute ends in 1417 with election of Martin V. Hence when, in 813 after his agreement with Michael I, Charlemagne decided to associate his surviving son, Louis, in the exercise of imperial power, he framed his actions accordingly. ope Leo III is the Pope who crowned Charlemagne on December 25, 800. Charlemagne (Latin, Carolus [Karolus] Magnus; April 2, 742, 747 or 748-Aachen, January 28, 814), personal name Charles, as Charles I the Great was King of the Franks from 768, nominal King of the Lombards from 774, and Imperator Romanum gubernans Imperium from 800 until his death.. Regardless of how old we are, we never stop learning. Escaping, he fled to Charlemagne in Paderborn, Germany. It was understood that the first duty of the new emperor was to be the protector of the Roman Church and of Christendom against the heathen. . he follows by the code; brave, loyal & respectful, What is the best title for this list? The last of them, Berengar of Friuli, was murdered in 924. The title of Emperor remained in the Carolingian family for years to come, but divisions of territory and in-fighting over supremacy of the Frankish state weakened its power and ability to lead. The Coronation of Charlemagne: United States of America, D.C. Heath and Company, 1959.69. 988: . Gradually, Rome began to rely on the protection of the powerful Frankish king, Charlemagne. Pope Leo was grateful, but he still wanted to return the church to power over all aspects of people's lives. ThoughtCo. This is the empire that historiography has been labelled the Byzantine Empire, for its capital was Constantinople (ancient Byzantium) and its people and rulers were Greek; it was a thoroughly Hellenic state. Supported by Charlemagne, he was able to recover some of the patrimonies of the Roman Church in the neighbourhood of Gaeta, and again to administer them through his rectors. Charlemagne was crowned "emperor of the Romans" by Pope Leo III in 800 CE, thus restoring the Roman Empire in the West for the first time since its dissolution in the 5th century. [5] This meeting forms the basis of the epic poem Karolus Magnus et Leo Papa. How did he create the impression that he was continuing or recreating the Roman Empire, He reigned in the Early Middle ages. He was canonized in 1673. Sometimes referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire in the East during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinople. In the third place, Charlemagnes coronation involved him and his successors ever more deeply in the ecumenical pretensions of the papacy. Nevertheless, the might of this empire rested on Charlemagne alone, and after his death it quickly fell apart. Given this political belief, it made sense to partly adopt Roman culture, architecture, law, literature and knowledge, thus keeping it alive. Why does one's concept of the medieval church have a direct bearing on one's attitude toward ecumenism? Which of the following was a main job of medieval ladies? Charlemagne born. Some 4500 stones were erected at the site where the Saxons were believed to have been killed. Charlemagne's father, Pepin, had already grown close to the Pope in Rome, and Charlemagne continued in his footsteps. In 800, Charlemagne traveled to Rome and organized for Pope Leo III to publicly swear an oath to eradicate the charges of misconduct levied . As they moved through the wooded Roncevaux Pass in the Pyrenees, Charlemagne's forces were ambushed, mostly by Basques who may have been angered by the wreckage of Pamplona or their ill treatment by Charlemagnes soldiers. : Script., I; Carmen de Carolo Magno, in P.L., XCVIII. Hans-Georg Beck, "Die Herkunft des Papstes Leo III", Last edited on 23 February 2023, at 07:05, Holy Spirit proceeds from both the Father and the Son, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pope_Leo_III&oldid=1141080694, This page was last edited on 23 February 2023, at 07:05. This devolution led to the dormancy of the title from 924 to 962. After Charlemagne calmed representatives from both sides and had Leo take an oath of purgation concerning charges of adultery and perjury brought against him, the two rulers attended a Christmas mass in St. Peter's. www.tfp.org The act was illegal, because popes never had the right to crown emperors. In this role, he encouraged the Carolingian Renaissance, a cultural and intellectual revival in Europe. [8] There is, however, no reason to doubt that for some time previous the elevation of Charlemagne had been discussed, both at home and at Rome, especially since the imperial throne in Constantinople was controversially occupied by a woman, Irene of Athens, and since the Carolingian dynasty had firmly established its power and prestige. 2020 Leaf Group Ltd. / Leaf Group Media, All Rights Reserved. He was originally buried in his own monument. Date of birth unknown; died 816. According to some he went to discuss with the emperor the division of his territories between his sons. JAFF (Berlin, 1867); Annales Einhardi (so called) and other Chronicles, in Mon. his military support For what achievement is Charlemagne most remembered? On Frankish campaigns, soldiers would bring back ancient Latin literature alongside other loot. Both in Constantinople and in Rome the situation was unstable. When the pope bestowed the title of emperor on him, the Roman empire lived on in Charlemagne. The salvation of antiquity's cultural heritage was a conscious process, because the scholars started with the idea of a linear connection in both culture and politics. This was on the one hand doubly offensive to Constantinople.[1] With this we see how in Roger Collins expert opinion that Charlemagne dictates the events at his coronation to send a message not just to his own empire but to the Byzantine Empire as well. She has a MA in art history and you can find her academic articles published in "Western Passages," "History Colorado" and "Dutch Utopia." Royal and Noble Saints, Carolingian monks meticulously copied these old texts into new volumes, helping preserve Cicero, Pliny the Younger, Ovid, and Ammianus Marcellinus. GitHub export from English Wikipedia. Two days after his oath, on Christmas Day 800, Leo crowned Charlemagne as emperor. MHLBACHER, I (Innsbruck, 1908); MANN, The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, II (London, 1906), 1 sqq. Charlemagne in November of 800 traveled to Rome, and arrived there on December 1 in-which he held a council there with representatives of both sides. Elites, 800, Pope Leo III placed a crown on Charlemagne's head and proclaimed him Holy Roman Emperor. Terms in this set (15) During his reign, Charlemagne: presided over an intellectual revival that preserved ancient learning. However, Charlemagne made no claim to the Byzantine Empire. After his army entered the Iberian Peninsula in 778, having been promised an alliance by Sulaiman Ibn al-Arabi in Barcelona that could spread Christendom into the Muslim territory, they made quick progress into the south towards Zaragoza. According to Charlemagne's biographer, Einhard, Charlemagne had no suspicion of what was about to happen, and if informed would not have accepted the imperial crown. More in-depth info about the book may be found by clicking on to the book's page at one of the online merchants. Early years Charlemagne earned the title "Father of Europe". Tags: Question 4 . In Constantinople, after troubles reaching back to 790, the empress Irene had her son Constantine VI blinded and deposed in 797 and took his place, the first woman to rule the empire in her own right. At his special request the death sentence which had been passed upon his principal enemies was commuted into a sentence of exile. Charlemagne, In what period did Charlemagne reign? B. a noble title. Contribute to chinapedia/wikipedia.en development by creating an account on GitHub. The Byzantine rulers had cut themselves off from Rome; therefore Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Carolus Augustulus, Emperor of the Romans, on Christmas Day. With this ceremony, the King of the Franks became a Roman Emperor, with a vast swath of Europe under his rule. He caused the chief conspirators to be seized and executed. [4], Leo seems to have known Greek. answer choices . [1] Roger Collins. 4 Coronation It was the way things had been under Adrian. BRYCE, The Holy Roman Empire (London, 1889A); KLEINKLAUSZ, LEmpire Carolingien (Paris, 1902); HODGKIN, Italy and her Invaders, VIII (Oxford, 1899); BHMER, Regesta Imperii, ed. Emperor of the West. Otherwise he remained, as before, king of the Franks and of the Lombards. The next morning he ordered them to return, dressed in their wrecked finery, and ridiculed them for demeaning themselves by . Charlemagne's willingness to defend the Church was established by Pope Adrian I, who requested his help to defeat the Lombard King Desiderius when he marched on the Papal States. In 812, after unsuccessful war and wearisome negotiation, the Byzantine emperor Michael I recognized Charlemagnes imperial title. The coronation of Charlemagne by Pope Leo III. The assembled bishops declared that they had no right to judge the pope; but Leo of his own free will, in order, as he said, to dissipate any suspicions in mens minds, declared on oath that he was wholly guiltless of the charges which had been brought against him. Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king, Charlemagne, Emperor of the Romans on Christmas Day, 800 in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, making him the most powerful ruler of his time. Through this act, Leo and Charlemagne cemented a mutually beneficial relationship between the Church and state authority. Nonetheless, Charlemagne used these circumstances to claim that he was the renewer of the Roman Empire, which would remain in continuous existence for nearly a millennium, as the Holy Roman Empire. That the coronation was done in Rome, in St. Peters basilica, and on Christmas Day, all add to the sublime majesty of the event. The currencys system of dividing a Carolingian pound of pure silver into 240 pieces was so successful that France kept a basic version of it until the French Revolution. DUCHESNE, II (Paris, 1892), 1 sqq. There is no doubt the great Charles deserved the crown. He took the title holy roman emperor; the title includes the roman emperor having a link to the Roman Empire. In 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne the Emperor of the Romans, thereby extending Charlemagnes power and authority. How realistic either Charlemagne or the pope felt it to be that the people of Constantinople would ever accept the king of the Franks as their emperor, we cannot know; Alcuin speaks hopefully in his letters of an Imperium Christianum (Christian Empire), wherein, just as the inhabitants of the [Roman Empire] had been united by a common Roman citizenship, presumably this new empire would be united by a common Christian faith. A king gave his most important lords fiefs, which were? The joint action of the pope and the emperor was felt even in England. In 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Holy Roman Emperor. Charlemagne's notoriety also popularized the name Charles throughout much of Europe, where it remains common today. Leo I, Leo II, and Leo IV. It seems clear that this coronation was the work of the papacy, not of the Frankish king, who is said to have been surprised and angry at it. After a concerted campaign to become ruler, Pepin finally became king in 751, and three years later was officially anointed by the pope, who at the same time anointed Pepin's sons Carloman and Charles (the future Charlemagne) with the holy oil that demonstrated their special status. This. The acquisition of this wealth was one of the causes which enabled Leo to be such a great benefactor to the churches and charitable institutions of Rome. It is quite possible that this haste may have been due to a desire on the part of the Romans to prevent any interference by the Franks. Early years In 754 Pope Stephen II had conferred on Charlemagne's father the dignity of Patricius Romanus, which implied primarily the protection of the Roman Church in all its rights and privileges; above all in its temporal authority which it had gradually acquired (notably in the former Byzantine Duchy of Rome and the Exarchate of Ravenna) by just titles in the course of the two preceding centuries.[7]. Indeed, Charlemagne was usurping the prerogatives of the Roman emperor in Constantinople simply by sitting in judgement over the pope in the first place. Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Emperor of the Romans on Christmas Day, 800. Which of the following statements about church attitudes and sex in the Early Middle Ages is true? With a view to combining the East and West under the effective rule of Charlemagne, Leo strove to further the project of a marriage between him and the Eastern empress Irene. Furthermore, the recognition was grudgingly given, and later, when Byzantium was stronger and the Carolingians weaker, Michaels successors refused to extend it automatically to Charlemagnes successors. When Odoacer compelled the abdication of Romulus Augustulus, he did not abolish the Western Empire as a separate power, but caused it to be reunited with or sink into the Eastern, so that from that time there was a single undivided Roman Empire [Pope Leo III and Charlemagne], like their predecessors, held the Roman Empire to be one and indivisible, and proposed by the coronation of [Charlemagne] not to proclaim a severance of the East and West. Very little is known of the real causes of the misunderstandings between them, but, whoever was the more to blame, the archbishop seems to have had the more to suffer. Social class in the middle ages was determined mainly by? For the Pope, it meant that the Catholic Church had the protection of the most powerful ruler in Europe. Though Tarasius condemned the conduct of Constantine, still, to avoid greater evils, he refused, to the profound disgust of the monks, to excommunicate him. a gift of land. This, according to the chronicler Theophanes, he sought to do by offering marriage to the empress Irene, hoping thus to reunite east and west. If so, a revolution in Constantinople and the deposition of Irene in 802 brought the plan to nothing. For what achievement is Charlemagne most remembered? At Charlemagne's Palace School at Aachen, Alcuin established a library filled with important works by antique authors. (888) 317-5571, Food and History of Recipes linked to Nobility, June 12 A certain nobleman had a concubine. Some three years after the departure of Charlemagne from Rome (801), Leo again crossed the Alps to see him (804). Since the crowning was advantageous to both parties, it's likely there was some partnership behind the event (it's also possible Einhard may have wanted his friend Charlemagne to appear more humble in his biography). Whatever the cause, after his death Charlemagne concentrated all of Carlomans land and power and became the sole King of the Franks. Snell, Melissa. By comparison with Adrian, Pope Leo III (795816) was a man of inferior calibre. Leo had, however, many relations with England solely on his own account. On December 23, Leo swore an oath of innocence. A multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806; founded by the coronation of Charlemagne by Pope Leo III. [1] Usually considered to be of Greek origin, his father's name may suggest an Arab background. In 808, Leo committed Corsica to Charlemagne for safe-keeping because of Muslim raids, originating from Al-Andalus,[9] on the island. Charlemagne's given name (Karl in German) was bestowed by his parents in honor of his grandfather, Charles Martel, and derives from the German for "free man." So Charlemagne led his army to help pope Leo. In view of the fact that in 806 he made arrangements to divide his territories among his three sons, one may doubt whether Charlemagnes empire would have survived had not the two elder sons died before him, leaving the undivided inheritance in 814 to the third son, Louis I the Pious. Meanwhile, in Rome the hostile nobility exploited the opportunity to attack Leo, who in 799 fled across the Alps to his protector, Charlemagne, at Paderborn. In Aachen, he commissioned buildings, the remnants of which still provide an indication of how the city was meant to become a "second Rome.". Although the immediate context of the imperial coronation of 800 was limited, it had wider connotations. The bold Roland was immortalized and mythologized in the medieval epic poem The Song of Roland, one of the oldest surviving examples of French literature. Coronation. Religious emperors and their ecclesiastical advisers would henceforward see as the main function attaching to their imperial dignity the promotion of Christian unity. The empire was soon separated between Louis's three sons. He had to rule from the Vatican. In 799, after Pope Leo III was abused by Romans who tried to put out his eyes and tear out his tongue, he escaped and fled to Charlemagne at Paderborn. Two days later, on December 25, a large gathering assembled in St. Peters, where the Pope was to consecrate Charlemagnes son as king. Henceforward the conflict between the two contrary views or theories of the empirethe papal and the Frankishwas to be a dominant theme. Learn about the reign of Charlemagne, King of the Franks and Holy Roman Emperor, Origins of the empire and sources of imperial ideas, Emperors and Empresses from Around the (Non-Roman) World Quiz. It's probable that Charlemagne had speculated on the likelihood of receiving the crown; the pope was, after all, in need of the kind of assistance only the King of the Franks could offer. Represented in Bible prophecy as: Fifth of ten horns related to Rome's empire (Daniel 7:24) Second of seven heads of Beast (Rev. In November 799, Charlemagne (ca. Which of these was a result of the fall of Rome? In the first place, the separation between East and West had become an accomplished fact in the political sphere; for, though the intention in 800 was not to divide the empire, this was the practical outcome. The title became more of a reality after it passed to the kings of the East Franks in what became Germany. His wars and conquests, the extent of his domains, his governing ability and promotion of learning, all underscored how worthy he was of receiving the title of Emperor of the West. in 813 he crowned his son louis the pious . This pope was nothing like Adrian. While in German kerl is understood to mean "guy," elsewhere variants of the name karl have come to mean "king." After he had been left for a time bleeding in the street, he was hurried off at night to the monastery of St. Erasmus on the Clian. The ceremony took place not in Rome but in the imperial chapel at Aachen; the pope was not present; the constitutive act was the acclamation of the gathered Frankish nobility; and Louis either received the diadem from his father or took it with his own hands from the altar. How long after the fall of Rome did Clovis become king of the franks? Leo III "placed two silver shields in Rome with the uninterpolated creed in both Greek and Latin. He was rescued by two of Charlemagne's missi dominici, who came with a considerable force. Suddenly, as Charlemagne rose from prayer, Leo placed a crown on his head and, while the assembled Romans acclaimed him as Augustus and emperor, the Pope abased himself before Charlemagne, adoring him after the manner of the emperors of old.. Charlemagne also discerned that the Church was necessary to unify the various Germanic tribes in his empire, help establish his authority over those tribes and revive the law and infrastructure of the Roman empire, which was one of the goals of his reign. Charlemagne - 800 A.D. As pope, Leo was adept in diplomacy and managed to keep his Carolingian allies from exerting any real influence on matters of doctrine. [5] He also reversed Pope Adrian I's decision in regards to the granting of the pallium to Bishop Hygeberht of Lichfield. It also served to notify Charlemagne's enemies that his domination of Western Europe was sanctioned by the Church. [2][3] An earlier person of the same name or nickname, Atzypios, was an iconoclast adversary of John of Damascus. Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne in return for A. a gift of land. Coronation of Charelmagne or Charles the Great, Reasons behind the cornation of Charelamgne, Reasons behind The Coronation of Chaleemagne. Explains that charlemagne was in good health prior to his death. The popes enemies were then tried by Charlemagnes envoys and, being unable to establish either Leos guilt or their own innocence, were sent as prisoners to France (Frankland). Since our own culture is built atop that which went before us, they mused, it only made sense to discover as much as possible about antiquity. This he did to show that he regarded the Frankish king as the protector of the Holy See. During the pontificate of Leo, the Church of Constantinople was in a state of unrest. He made war against England. Pope, Equally while acting in harmony with the pope, Charlemagne combatted the heresy of Adoptionism which had arisen in Spain; but he went somewhat further than his spiritual guide when he wished to bring about the general insertion of the Filioque in the Nicene Creed. D. military support. Charlemagne was an imposing figure, with a height estimated between 5 feet 10 inches and 6 feet 4 inches, which was quite a bit taller than the average male height at the time. The name Charlemagne (English: / r l m e n, r l m e n / SHAR-l-mayn, - MAYN), by which the emperor is normally known in English, comes from the French Charles-le-magne, meaning "Charles the Great".In modern German, Karl der Groe has the same meaning. Charlemagne was extremely passionate about Christianity, and wanted to share his passion with the people in his kingdom. Pope Leo III. D For what achievement is Charlemagne most remembered? Click here to find out what happens next,when Pope Leo Gets Even, Free When Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor: it symbolized the fusion of Roman, Christian, and Germanic traditions. At any rate, two years later, he was invited to give his assent to the emperors provisions for the said partition. With the letter informing the Frankish ruler Charlemagne that he had been unanimously elected Pope, Leo sent him the keys of the confession of St. Peter, and the standard of the city, and requested an envoy. Pope St. Leo III's crowning of Charlemagne on Christmas Day, 800 A.D. is one of History's finest moments. Up to the end of the sixteenth century a figure of Leo in mosaic was to be seen in that ancient church. Charlemagne accepted and left, destroying the defensive walls of Pamplona on the way back so they could not be used as a base for attack against his men. Leo III wanted things to be like they were before Charlemagne. What common practices of public worship and personal piety have their roots in the . The female sex was known to be incapable of governing, and by the old Salic tradition was debarred from doing so. 843. In what ways was the ocean valuable to economies in the northern colonies? Where Adrian had tried to maintain independence by balancing the Byzantine emperor against the Frankish king, Leo from the first showed subservience to the latter. By the time of his death in 814, this kingdom included the majority of what is now considered Western, and some of Central, Europe. It seems that in Rome he had been crowned by Leo III under the title of Imperator Romanorum or Emperor of the Romans. In 789, Charlemagne also issued a decree to his empire's clergy, instructing them to learn (and sing properly) the Cantus Romanus, or Roman chant. This is a well-known with many historians and others who study this part of history. Index by Profession, Achievement, or Role in Society. Leo III took this money and built churches and monasterys as well. He would become one of the most illuminating figures of the Dark Ages. Snell, Melissa. Their writings were recorded in the script known as Carolingian minuscule, and archived. Historian John Julius Norwich writes of their motivation: For the pope, then, there was no living Emperor at the that time. Furthermore, the papacy had since 727 been in conflict with Irenes predecessors in Constantinople over a number of issues, chiefly the continued Byzantine adherence to the doctrine of iconoclasm, the destruction of Christian images. SURVEY . Not only in the last mentioned transaction, but in all matters of importance, did the pope and the Frankish emperor act in concert. Leo III was buried in St. Peters (12 June, 816), where his relics are to be found along with those of Sts. Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne in return for. Pope Leo III (died 12 June 816) was bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States from 26 December 795 to his death. But with Charlemagne in power and with the people behind Charlemagne how could he. Charlemagne had arrived in Rome a few weeks earlier at the request of the pope, but by many accounts, including that of his court scholar Einhard, he was not expecting his new role, and only realized what was happening when the pope put the imperial crown upon his head. [14], Leo III died in 816 after a reign of more than 20 years. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/pope-leo-iii-profile-1789101. His given name was Charles (Latin Carolus, Old High German Karlus, Romance Karlo).He was named after his . There is the other debatable opinion about the true nature of the coronation of Charlemagne on that fateful day on the 25th of December 800. By whom, however, could he [the Pope] be tried? This was a later doctrine; but already to Charlemagne the dangers were evident. Prompted by jealousy, ambition, or the thought that only someone of the nobility should hold the office of pope, a number of relatives of Adrian I formed a plot to render Leo unfit to hold his office. It was on Christmas Day in St. Peters. 2023 Minute Media - All Rights Reserved. Leo III became pope in 795, when the previous Pope Adrian I died in a quick ceremony which was probably done to avoid the influence from the Frankish King which was Charlemagne at that time. Even after Charlemagnes reign, these European monasteries remained devoted to the preservation of Latin literature and knowledge. Charlemagne: King of the Franks and Lombards, The Origin and Decline of the Papal States, Leonardo, Michelangelo & Raphael: Art of the Italian High Renaissance, B.A., History, University of Texas at Austin.
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